Research
The Legal Aid Forum plays a significant role in monitoring the indicators set by the state institutions in their policies on access to justice with information gathered from our network, and through targeted research projects. From the findings of the research, recommendations are made to relevant institutions which lead to concrete actions being taken to address human rights issues, reduce capacity gaps, and introduce innovative solutions to justice problems. It is also these research which form the basis for LAF’s evidence-based advocacy.
The methodologies and techniques used by LAF have proven to be effective in both qualitative and quantitative studies. Some of which include; consultation of existing documentation and reports on subject-matters, secondary data collection through desk review and analysis as well as first-hand data collections through interviews, Focus Group Discussions(FGDs) and survey; data collection using ICT facilities and existing databases.
LAF’s research is conducted by a team of qualified and experienced resource persons with the support from either an ad hoc steering committee members, external reviewers or stakeholders’ working sessions to input and improve the research products.
LAF research has been influential in the areas of Access to Justice, Human Rights and Rule of Law.
Research Reports
Research

Report of Benchmarking Study on Kenya’s Media Sector.
From 11th to 15th December 2022, LAF in partnership with Thomson Foundation conducted a benchmarking study in Kenya, to learn from regional best practices for a professional, independent and financially self-sustaining Media Sector that serves the needs of the public as one of the activities that aimed at supporting the ongoing Rwanda Media Policy review in Rwanda. This benchmarking study consisted of key stakeholders from the Media Sector in Rwanda, who engaged with representatives of seven agencies within the Kenyan media organizations.
The main objectives of this study visit was to equip the Rwandan team with experience and best practices through open exchange of ideas, knowledge, and sound practices to learn current trends and dynamics of media regulation and policy frameworks, in the EAC region. The study visit also aimed at providing participants with practical insights and best practices in Media legal and regulatory framework, educating them on how best to promote access to information in the community, and collecting ideas that could inspire the ongoing Rwanda media policy review.
From engagements with the Kenyan institutions, several policy positions emerged worth reiterating among which included, the film content and TV Commercials Regulation, the advanced welfare of journalists, accreditation of journalists and their work, capacity building of journalists, Gender mainstreaming, media viability, media digital era, among others…
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Comparative Analysis of Media Laws and Policies in East Africa.
This Comparative Analysis of Media Laws and Policies in East Africa aims at highlighting emerging comparative media policy trends in the EAC region, while reiterating the best international standards that remain necessary in safeguarding the media as a critical player for sustainable development. The analysis was conducted by LAF, in partnership with Thomson Foundation and with support from FCDO, as one of the activities that aimed to support the ongoing Media Policy review in Rwanda. This study adopted a purely comparative legal research design.
Findings from the analysis report acknowledge that the four countries have ratified key human rights instruments and their Constitution’s guarantee media freedom and welcomes the positive policy changes that have been witnessed in the media sector in the four countries in the past decade or two.
Findings also reveal that same standards that apply to legacy media should apply to online news media outlets plus those that are relevant in managing the cyber space like cybersecurity laws. It was is also revealed that the adoption of cybercrime laws must not lead to establishment of a retinue of content-based offences, simply because most of the so-called cyber offences are cyber-enabled and not cyber dependent.
Various recommendations are suggested in this report among which include; 1) Media policies and laws should state clearly and unequivocally that public broadcasters shall be those that render media services as public media services and not state broadcasters, 2) Decriminalisation of defamation and publication of false news, 3) Develop a media diversity funds that can be used to spur media sectors especially at times when there is a slump down in revenues, among other recommendations…..
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Assessment of the Status of Media Self-Regulation in Rwanda.
This assessment on the status of media-self regulation in Rwanda was conducted by the Legal Aid Forum (LAF), with financial support from the European Union (EU). Its aims are four-fold: analyzing (1) the current legal and institutional framework underpinning media self-regulation in Rwanda, (2) the code of deontology and ethics in view of emerging ethical issues linked to the digital age and concerns of gender sensitivity, (3) the current state of the Rwanda Media Commission (RMC) in view of its legal status, capacity, sustainability and independence to deliver on its mandate, and (4) the progress and challenges of RMC in handling complaints and advocacy of journalists’ right of access to information and press freedom. This study relies on the analysis of quantitative data (including annual reports and surveys conducted by stakeholders such as Ministries, other Government agencies, and CSOs), and has gathered qualitative data through Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and Focus Group Discussion (FGDs).
Findings highlight that the existing national and international legal instruments duly ratified by Rwanda offer a conducive environment for media self-regulation and freedom of expression in Rwanda. However, media self-regulation is hindered by new ethical challenges associated to the current digital age, which are not addressed by the current code of deontology and ethics. Further, RMC is understaffed and under-funded, in turn affecting its ability to conduct effective and sustainable media self-regulation.....
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Status of Freedom of Expression and Access to Information Summary Report.
This Assessment on the Status of Freedom of Expression and Access to Information in Rwanda was conducted by the Legal Aid Forum (LAF), with financial support from the European Union (EU) in 2021. It aims at assessing the status of Freedom of Expression and Access to information in Rwanda, following reforms by the Government of Rwanda in the media and information sector to promote freedom of expression and access to information.
Specific objectives of this assessment were: i) to analyze the legal and institutional framework underpinning the media’s freedom of expression and access to information; ii) to analyse the extent to which freedom of expression and related laws are respected and complied with in Rwanda; iii) Assess the progress and challenges related to freedom of expression and access to information in Rwanda, among others.
This study relies on analysis of quantitative data obtained from legal documentation related to (FoE) and (ATI) at the international, regional and national levels, face-to-face interviews, FGDs and KIIs that mainly sampled experts in the media fraternity, policymakers, private and CSOs in the legal domain.
Findings from this assessment highlight a number of strengths, opportunities, weaknesses, challenges and threats related to the implementation of freedom of expression and access to information in Rwanda........
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Broadening Access to Justice in Rwanda: Analyzing the Opportunity for Public Interest Litigation.
The purpose of this paper is to analyse the opportunity for Public Interest Litigation (PIL) in Rwanda and to suggest a strategy for the Legal Aid Forum (LAF) to take this phenomenon forward in order to benefit the indigent population and vulnerable groups in Rwanda. To do so, this paper analyses standing and amicus curiae (friend of the court) in Rwanda and other countries, as well as case examples on socio-economic rights. Interviews with a number of practitioners (judges, advocates and NGO lawyers) were also conducted.
This paper finds that starting PIL is not an easy task in Rwanda where the standing rules are unclear, advocates and the judiciary unaware, and the political environment unsympathetic. Nevertheless, a majority of interviewees stated that, in their view, the law was open to these concepts being argued before the courts and that the judiciary would take a well-prepared creative approach seriously, some of whom would welcome it. In the case of Rwanda, this paper recommends pushing human rights cases in general, which would help create a space for PIL over time. Supporting PIL in its widest sense, employing strategic litigation and bringing test cases, taking up individuals’ judicial reviews and constitutional challenges, supporting cases of exploitation and abuse, including sexual, and employment rights cases including those of domestic workers,.......
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Enforcement of Court Judgments and its impacts on Access to Justice in Rwanda.
The purpose of this research report was to monitor and evaluate enforcement of court judgments in Rwanda. In accordance with the Justice, Reconciliation, Law & Order Sector Strategy; July 2009 – June 2012, LAF conducted this research focusing on the enforcement of civil judgments excluding commercial and criminal judgments. This research was conducted in ten districts across Rwanda’s five provinces. Primarily quantitative research methods were used in the form of questionnaires targeting those trying to enforce or having enforced court judgments (claimants), and individuals responsible for enforcement (enforcement agents).
Findings from this research addressed the length of enforcing court judgments, looking at how long claimants wait or have been waiting for the enforcement of their judgments, the cost of enforcing court judgments focusing on the loss of earnings, travel costs, and fees of professional bailiffs incurred by claimants; competence of enforcement agents, focusing on their trainings; availability of enforcement agents, looking at their time constraints and other factors influencing their availability; enforcement mechanism and procedures, comparing voluntary and forced enforcement; as well as effectiveness and public perception of the enforcement process..........
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Improving the Performance of the Criminal Justice System through Improved Pretrial Justice.
This pre-trial justice research project was designed to evaluate and monitor the level of adherence to the rule of law when citizens are arrested and dealt with prior to trial. Specifically, this report provides an analysis of the legislative provisions governing matters of pre-trial justice in Rwanda before seeking to obtain an understanding of the de facto situation. Empirical data was gathered through questionnaires for detained persons and the Judicial Police, as well as interviews with representatives of the Court, the Judicial Police and the National Prosecution Authority (NPPA).
Findings highlight that the de jure position in Rwanda is crystal clear and, in the regional context, Rwanda is to be congratulated on the laws which, in principle, govern the way in which the accused are treated by the state. Unfortunately, there is overwhelming evidence that the de facto position in Rwanda is a cause for concern. It should be pointed out that the problems appear to stem from systemic failures (including limited coordination and no built-in oversight mechanisms in the justice system).........
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Assessment of Challenges and Capacity needs of the Criminal Justice Agencies in Managing Gender Based Violence Cases in Rwanda.
This report presents the findings of the qualitative assessment conducted by the Legal Aid Forum (LAF), with financial support from UN Rwanda and UN Women, in pre-selected districts in Rwanda. Its aim is to identify the main challenges and capacity gaps of the judicial sector personnel (judicial police officers, prosecutors and judges) in relation to the management of Gender-Based Violence (GBV) cases.
Findings suggest that the definition of GBV and GBV categories in the national law lack clarity. Respondents further (1) widely acknowledged the need to enhance the knowledge and understanding of national legal provisions by judicial personnel at all levels – including police, prosecution and court level –, highlighted (2) the lack of clear guidelines supporting diverse actors alongside the process of evidence collection, and (3) the need to improve the exploration of different and/or complementary types of evidence in addition and/or as an alternative to medical evidence. Recommendations thus include (1) the enhancement of the national legal framework for GBV through the application of a comprehensive set of guidelines that will support judicial sector personnel of diverse institutions and at different level in the qualification and management of GBV cases, (2) the enhancement of skills in GBV case analysis, crime qualification and evidence.........
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The Implementation of Rwanda’s Expropriation Law and Outcomes on the Population.
This report aims at addressing concerns regarding the implementation of Rwanda’s Expropriation Law and at evaluating its outcomes on the population, specifically on expropriated households. It is part of the wider USAID Rwanda LAND Project. In this report, the Legal Aid Forum (LAF), with financial support from USAID, focuses on the following research questions: What is the status of processes and procedures for the implementation of the Expropriation Law? What are the key challenges and impacts from the implementation of this law? To answer these questions, a desk review of relevant laws, policies, documents, and records was conducted. Further, qualitative data collected though Key Informant Interviews (KIIs) and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs), and quantitative data was gathered through Structured Interviews/Household Surveys.
The data obtained through this study revealed that insufficient and delayed compensation were the most important issues to property owners, government stakeholders and expropriating institutions. This suggests the possibility for collaborative efforts to decrease delays and improve the integrity of the valuation process. Further, while measuring the price paid per square meter of expropriated land, unexpected variations emerged, based on the expropriating entity paying the compensation. These were found to be arbitrary differences in land values..........
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Assessment of Barriers to Effective Access to Justice for Girls and Women with Disabilities in Rwanda.
This Assessment on the Barriers to Effective Access to Justice for Girls and Women with Disabilities in Rwanda was conducted by the Legal Aid Forum (LAF), in partnership with the Rwandan Organisation of Women with Disabilities (UNABU), and with financial support from the Disability Rights Fund. Its aims are three-fold: examining the existing level of access to justice for girls and women with disabilities, identifying barriers and gaps in law and policy, and scrutinizing the role of different organizations and institutions in access to justice by women and girls with disabilities. This assessment is based on (1) information gathered through a desk review of laws, policies, conventions and existing publications such as research reports, and (2) qualitative research in the form of interviews with key stakeholders and Focus Group Discussions (FGDs) with women and girls with disabilities.
Findings demonstrate the Government of Rwanda’s significant progress in developing a legal, policy and institutional framework that streamlines legal aid in order to ensure universal and affordable quality justice. The assessment nevertheless found that there are still significant gaps and barriers,.......
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Final Assessment Report on the Implementation of 2015 UPR recommendations by the Republic of Rwanda.
This assessment report, published in June 2020 by the Legal Aid Forum (LAF), focused on the implementation of the recommendations made to Rwanda during the second Universal Periodic Review on 4 November 2015. The Coalition assessed all the recommendations that enjoyed the support of Rwanda, including those that the Government of Rwanda (GoR) considered to have been implemented or are in the process of being implemented. The report is a product of information and data gathered by Coalition members from responsible Government institutions, as indicated in the roadmap for UPR implementation, as well as interviews with Civil Society Organizations and literature review from various institutional and country reports on human rights.
The Coalition notes with satisfaction the strong and improved legal and institutional framework promoting and guaranteeing the enjoyment of human rights in Rwanda, and commends the GoR’s efforts to expedite the development and implementation of well-tailored poverty reduction strategies. Part three of this report further details the findings on the status of specific human rights, in accordance with the recommendations given to Rwanda in 2015. The Coalition overall recommends (1) continued joint collaboration with the Ministry in Charge of Emergency Management to advocate and find needed solution for refugees, asylum seekers and migrant workers,...
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Fast Tracking Gender Equality in Law in Rwanda: Comprehensive Legal Analysis of Gender Compliance under Rwandan Laws.
The Comprehensive Legal analysis of Gender Compliance in Rwandan Laws was conducted by the Legal Aid Forum (LAF) in 2020 with financial support from UN Women, with a two-fold aim: (1) reviewing laws that may discriminate explicitly (de jure) or implicitly (de facto) on the basis of gender, and (2) identifying any remaining gender gaps to be addressed by relevant institutions so that Rwanda eliminates all gender discrimination in its laws. Qualitative data was collected through interviews with key stakeholders, and through focus group discussions (FGDs) with key actors. This allowed for the verification and cross-checking of findings, as well as identification of enforcement-related gaps where laws are not being enforced, or where laws that are not themselves discriminatory are applied in a way that leads to gender discrimination.
Findings suggest that Rwanda has made significant efforts to prevent gender-based discrimination and promote equality between men and women. Despite these commendable efforts, some gaps still exist in the laws in force, as well as some practical barriers that hinder the full attainment of equality between women and men. This report’s key recommendations include (1) the repeal or amendment of several Rwandan laws that discriminate de jure or de facto on the basis of gender (including the law governing labour, the protection of the child, ........
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Situational Analysis of Teenage Pregnancy & Teen Mothers in Rwanda
This project was conducted by AJPRODHO-JIUKIRWA in partnership with the Legal Aid Forum (LAF), aims at providing a situational analysis of teenage pregnancy and teen mothers in four provinces of Rwanda by (1) investigating the causes of teenage pregnancy, (2) analysing the effects of teenage pregnancy, and (3) assessing the access to justice needs of the teenage mothers. Qualitative data was collected through questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGDs), interviews with key informants, as well as through the observation technique. Secondary data was gathered through various national and international policy and legal documents.
Findings highlight that the leading cause of teenage pregnancy is defilement (49%), followed by peer influence (33%). Although, other factors such as technological development, the quest and ring for material needs, lack of parenting and knowledge on sexual and reproductive health, were presented. Data collected indicates that the main effects of teenage pregnancy are dropping out of school (34%), poverty (32%) and stigma (25%). In relation to access to justice, this study revealed that only 15% of suspects’ cases were taken to courts due to financial support from the suspect (46%), prospect to get married (17%) and emotional attachment to male partners (16%). This study recommends that schools put much emphasize on sexual and reproductive health and consider it as an important issue at primary and secondary school levels...........
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Alternative Report to the Second Review of Rwanda by the UPR working group of the Human Rights Council
The Rwanda Civil Society Coalition on UPR submitted its mid-term assessment alternative report during Rwanda’s second review on 4th November 2015. Its aim was to assess all the recommendations that enjoyed the support of Rwanda, including those that the Government considered to have been implemented or in the process of being implemented based on the current UPR implementation roadmap. In terms of scope, the assessment primarily focused on the accomplishments realized thus far, from January 2016 to December 2017. The report is a product of information and data gathered by Coalition members from responsible Government institutions as indicated in the roadmap for UPR implementation, interviews with Civil Society Organizations and literature review from various institutional and country reports.
In total, 229 recommendations were made. Out of the 229 recommendations, 50 enjoyed the support of Rwanda. 103 enjoyed the support of Rwanda but Rwanda considered some to have been implemented or in the process of being implemented, while 75 did not enjoy the support of Rwanda and they were thus noted. This alternative report recommends (1) raising awareness on responsibilities of each responsible institution assigned specific action(s) under the implementation of the UPR roadmap; ............
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Citizens Monitoring of the Justice Sector in Rwanda: Making the Justice Institutions More Responsive to the Concerns of Citizens.
This project aimed at collecting citizen feedback in relation to their satisfaction with the delivery of justice services. The survey was a collaborative effort between the Legal Aid Forum (LAF), its member organizations, and Oxfam in Rwanda, with the financial support of DFID’s Security and Justice Innovation Fund.
The survey findings affirm the progress realized towards promoting access to quality justice for all: 79% of survey respondents who requested services from legal aid providers (both state and non-state) were able to receive them, and 84.9% of respondents were satisfied with the ability of Abunzi to settle disputes. Nevertheless, the average waiting time for a case to be resolved (454 days) and delays in execution of judgement (up to 8 months), are contrary to the common adage that justice delayed is justice denied. This project thus recommends that the government increase efforts to make citizens more aware of the free legal aid services MAJ staff can provide to the indigent and needy. Finally, LAF believes that that capacity and policy gaps identified in this study should be swiftly addressed in order to maintain and increase citizens’ positive perceptions of the Justice Sector, and to guarantee greater access to justice.
Keywords: Delivery of justice services; Citizen feedback; Access to justice;.........
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Monitoring of EDPRS (2008-2012) indicators in the justice sector: Enforcement of court judgment and its impact on access to justice in Rwanda.
This assessment monitoring EDPRS (2008-2012) indicators in the justice sector was published by Legal Aid Forum (LAF), with funding from the Belgian Embassy in Kigali. Its primary purpose is to monitor and evaluate the enforcement of court judgements in Rwanda, a central issue of access to justice as it represents the last step in obtaining justice for a claimant. Primarily quantitative research methods were used in the form of questionnaires targeting those trying to enforce or having enforced their court judgement (claimants) and those persons responsible for enforcement (enforcement agents). Key findings were extrapolated from responses to these questionnaires as well as Focus Group Discussions (FGDs).
The findings discussed in this report clearly highlight problems with enforcement in Rwanda. Claimants wait longer than the legal three-month delay for enforcement, many enforcement agents are not sufficiently competent to be carrying out their role of enforcement, claimants lack confidence in the enforcement of their court judgements, and defendants are either reluctant to pay and/or do not understand the finality of a court judgement. This report recommends the following to improve enforcement regimes: (1) raising awareness amongst the general public on the importance of court judgements; (2) discharging executive secretaries from their enforcement role, which could be taken over by alternative enforcement agents; (3)
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LEGAL AND POLICY FRAMEWORK ANALYSIS REPORT.
This research was conducted and published by LAF, IPAR, and the University of Massachusetts Boston, with support from the U.S. Agency for International Development (USAID) in 2018. It focused on analyzing several cross-cutting legal framework issues affecting the general system of administrative justice in Rwanda focusing on four areas of land expropriation, labor regulation, public procurement, and public employment. It analysed the role of the courts, Ombudsman’s Office, and so called Maisons d’Access a la Justice (MAJ), the district access to justice offices. Furthermore, it also highlighted challenges with policy matters and implementation of existing laws and policies.
Findings from this research revealed noteworthy gaps in the legal framework in areas of land expropriation, labor regulation, public procurement, and public employment, and revealed certain practical implementation barriers to achieving justice, including institutional or managerial deficiencies and a lack of legal awareness of rights and responsibilities on the part of both citizens and government officials. Recommendations were derived from interviews and roundtable discussions with various stakeholders that could inform the views of policymakers going forward. ...........
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Rwanda_UPR Mid Term Assessment Report_CSO Coalition.
This mid- term assessment report was prepared and submitted by Rwanda Civil Society Coalition on UPR that LAF is a member, to the United Nations Human Rights Council in 2018. The assessment focused on the implementation of recommendations made to Rwanda during the second review on 4th November 2015 since Rwanda’s human rights record had been reviewed twice under the Universal Periodic Review mechanism, the first review being in 2011 and the second in 2015.
UPR is a unique and most comprehensive mechanism that assesses state performances on Human Rights ranging from Civil, Political, Economic, Social and Cultural rights. Out of the 229 recommendations that were given to Rwanda, 50 enjoyed its support, while 103 enjoyed the support of Rwanda but Rwanda considered some of them to have been implemented or in the process of being implemented and 75 did not enjoy the support of Rwanda.
This report therefore is a product of information and data gathered by Coalition members from responsible Government institutions as indicated in the roadmap for UPR implementation, interviews with civil society organizations and literature review from various institutional and country reports. In terms of scope, the assessment primarily focused on the accomplishments realized from January 2016 to December 2017. This report concentrates on more general issues that underpin Human Rights in Rwanda in accordance with recommendations that had been given to Rwanda in 2015.
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Final Report of the Legal Aid Baseline and Needs Analysis Survey.
This study was commissioned by LAF in collaboration with the Ministry of Justice under the financial support of UNDP, DIHR and Norwegian People’s Aid. It intends to provide baseline data on the current practices and gaps in service provision in order to inform the planning, programming, financing and regulation of legal aid services with a view of realising the goal of improved access to justice.
Findings from the assessment reveal a generally limited understanding of legal aid, specifically from the perspective of citizen’s ability to pay for legal services, which this was found to be one of the greatest barrier that hindered their accessibility to justice. It was also revealed that legal aid services are largely urban based amidst high need for such services in rural districts. The survey recommends amendment of the Law on the Bar to provide for lawyers employed by civil society to represent their indigent clients in court and to build a mechanism to regulate legal aid services in the country. It also recommends improved efforts to broaden the understanding of legal aid providers and other key stakeholders on the meaning of legal aid from the perspective of affordability.
Lastly, the assessment concludes that whilst quality legal services are still not accessible for the majority of Rwandans, recent developments and interest in the legal aid sector promises a brighter and healthy situation.
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Report of Baseline survey on needs and main sources of interpersonal and intra-family disputes and conflicts between State and the individuals.
In 2013, LAF conducted a Baseline survey on needs and main sources of interpersonal and intra-family disputes and conflicts between State and the individuals, for the International Rescue Committee under the Access to Justice Project.
The overall objective of this baseline survey was to identify the recurrent disputes in the Rwandan community, sources of such disputes and challenges met in trying to seek/access justice. The survey also aimed at assessing the performance of Abunzi, as a grass root mechanism to resolve citizens’ disputes, and identify their capacity needs to effectively execute their mediation roles.
Findings from this baseline survey highlight the most recurrent types of conflicts in the Rwandan community to be; land-related, property-related, inheritance, family disputes, Gender-Based Violence, abuse of family property, among others. It also indicates challenges faced by the local citizens while seeking justice to be ; high cost, long distances travelled, lack of proper enforcement mechanisms of court decisions, lack of information on the procedure and competent authorities, among others.
Recommendations from this survey suggest improved awareness of human rights including child rights, property, and family and gender laws as well as legal procedures, increased training and capacity building of Abunzi, strengthening collaboration among community leaders and Abunzi, among others.
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Situational Analysis of Teenage Pregnancy & Teen Mothers in Rwanda.
This project was conducted by AJPRODHO-JIUKIRWA in partnership with the Legal Aid Forum (LAF), aims at providing a situational analysis of teenage pregnancy and teen mothers in four provinces of Rwanda by (1) investigating the causes of teenage pregnancy, (2) analysing the effects of teenage pregnancy, and (3) assessing the access to justice needs of the teenage mothers. Qualitative data was collected through questionnaires, focus group discussions (FGDs), interviews with key informants, as well as through the observation technique.......
Read MoreEnforcement of Court Judgments and its impacts on Access to Justice in Rwanda
The purpose of this research report was to monitor and evaluate enforcement of court judgments in Rwanda. In accordance with the Justice, Reconciliation, Law & Order Sector Strategy; July 2009 – June 2012, LAF conducted this research focusing on the enforcement of civil judgments excluding commercial and criminal judgments. This research was conducted in ten districts across Rwanda’s five provinces. Primarily quantitative research methods were used in the form of questionnaires targeting those trying to enforce or having enforced court judgments (claimants), and individuals responsible for enforcement (enforcement agents).
Findings from this research addressed the length of enforcing court judgments, looking at how long claimants wait or have been waiting for the enforcement of their judgments, the cost of enforcing court judgments focusing on the loss of earnings, travel costs, and fees of professional bailiffs incurred by claimants; competence of enforcement agents, focusing on their trainings; availability of enforcement agents, looking at their time constraints and other factors influencing their availability; enforcement mechanism and procedures, comparing voluntary and forced enforcement; as well as effectiveness and public perception of the enforcement process..........
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